Figures wearing a headdress with a single protrusion from the crown of the head, known as the Oro, are found only among the Ọba and a select category of palace dignitaries whose ancestors originated in ancient Ile Ife. Ọbazee 2025, p. 407 Only the Osa and Osuan, custodians of the Uwen and Ora deities, as well as members of the Emuru, who are responsible for the care of Iru vessels, may wear a headdress with the Oro. The identification of different figures is therefore interpreted based on the combination of the Oro with other items of regalia. Artists in the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn and Igbesamwan depicted figures with the Oro on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), respectively. The Oro would either be made of coral beads as part of the crown or headdress, or be woven from itoto fibre.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ. Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests.

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie. Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

Enobare is the term used for the supporting figures who are typically depicted alongside the Ọba, holding his arms or hands as part of the Royal Triad motif. Their identities are interpreted variously: they may represent the Osa and Osuan, who support the Ọba during certain ceremonial contexts, or, particularly in representations dating to the 18th century, the Edaiken (crown prince) and Ezọmọ.

This oval-shaped bead with faceted sides is known as the Ivie okpagbaru or Ivie Ewuare (the ‘royal bead’ or ‘Ewuare bead’). The association of Ọba Ewuare with this bead is based on a story in which Ewuare took beads from the deity Olokun, sanctifying his royal position and, in turn, receiving the title ‘Lord of the Land’, in contrast to Olokun’s title ‘Lord of the Sea’. The Ivie okpagbaru/Ivie Ewuare is a distinctive motif that can be used to identify representations of the Ọba.

Due to the association of beads with Olokun, it is unsurprising that this bead has come to symbolise wealth when used to decorate Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). ). Paula Ben-Amos associated the bead with a different narrative and the name ‘One Bead Does Not Go around the Neck’. Ben-Amos suggests that the bead is in fact the one that was fought over by Ọba Ẹsigie and his brother Aruanran when they struggled for the right to the throne in the early 16th century.

Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) formed part of the ceremonial regalia worn by court dignitaries to indicate their rank or function and are frequently represented among the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), particularly those made of brass, bronze, or ivory.

Different animals were depicted on Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ, particularly the heads of leopards and crocodiles. The most common type features the face or head of an Ọba. Other examples take the form of an elephant head incorporating the trunk-hand motif, a ram’s head, or, in a very small number of cases, the face of a Portuguese man. Different figures appear to have worn Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ with different imagery. For example, warrior chiefs are often depicted wearing leopard-head pendant masks, whereas crocodile-head Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ are generally shown being worn only by the Ọba and his Enọbare (Blackmun 2007, cat. no. 137, p. 365).

The Ẹkpẹn (leopard) is an animal that appears most often among the motifs decorating the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). The Ẹkpẹn symbolises the valour and strength of the Ọba, as well as his political authority. The Benin people eulogise the Ọba as the ‘ẹkpẹn n'owa’ (leopard of the home).

When a hunter kills a leopard, he must say “ẹkpẹn n'oha” (I killed a bush leopard), as it is taboo to say that a hunter killed a leopard without specifying that it is a bush leopard, as otherwise this would “be tantamount to symbolically killing the king” (Nevadomsky 1988, p. 81). For this reason, leopards of the bush are called Atalakpa to distinguish them from those that represent the Ọba.

This motif of an Ọba with legs represented as two mudfish is often interpreted as Ọba Ohẹn, who reigned c. 1334–1370. According to oral traditions, Ohẹn suffered from paralysis of the legs and unsuccessfully attempted to conceal his condition from the chiefs and members of the royal court. The Iyasẹ Emuze eventually hid in the Ọba’s chambers to discover his secret. When Ohẹn discovered this, he ordered the Iyasẹ to be executed. However, the people learned of the order and turned against the Ọba. According to the tradition, they plotted to kill him ritually by digging a hole beneath his throne and stoning him with Orhue (white kaolin chalk) when he fell into it.

Not all representations of an Ọba with mudfish legs, however, are understood to refer to Ohẹn. Variations in the objects and animals carried by the figure are thought to indicate different meanings. Members of the Igbesamwan and Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn have emphasised the significance of these accompanying motifs (Blackmun 1984, pp.249–255). When the mudfish-legged Ọba is shown holding aquatic creatures such as crocodiles, for example, the image has been interpreted as a “cosmological image” representing the correspondence between the two monarchs: the Ọba of Benin, ruler of the land, and Olokun, ruler of the waters. By contrast, representations in which the Ọba holds swords or staffs have been interpreted specifically as depictions of Ọba Ohẹn.

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria. Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days.