Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria. Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days.

Iwu are facial and body markings (scarifications) that were historically worn by Edo men and women. However, since the 1960s, the practice has been nearly extinct. ). In the past, Iwu were used as a way of proving that one was an Edo citizen, and the ceremony of having Iwu completed was an important rite of passage for men and women. The Osiwu, who also practised circumcision and other surgical procedures, would carry out the procedure of adding Iwu. There are different types of Iwu: ‘blades’ worn on the torso (Iwu-eko), and those worn on the face, such as Ikharo (three or four markings above the eyebrows), Irho (two narrow ‘blades’ worn on each cheek), Ovbihue (nasal ‘blades’), Ovbi-agbanmwen (chin ‘blade’), and Igho-okpa/Ukpgho (three forehead ‘blades’).

The number of Iwu also varied depending on the identity of the person wearing them. For example, royal men would wear six ‘blades’ on their torso, whilst men who were not royal would wear seven ‘blades’. Meanwhile, the Ọba’s female children would wear fifteen ‘blades’, and all other women would wear sixteen.

Ọba gha ye Ivie gie ọwan, ẹ ghi tama rẹn ehe nọ gha bae yi (When the Ọba gifts you a bead, he doesn’t tell you how to wear it) (Daniel Inneh, pers. comm., 27 September 2025).

Iviawẹ (also spelled ĺvîowẹ) are coral-beaded anklets, often worn stacked together (Aigbe 1985, p. 28; Okpokunu, Agbontaen-Eghafona & Ojo 2005, p. 162; Ọbazee 2025, p. 279). Many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) in brass, bronze, ivory, and wood are shown wearing these. According to Daniel Inneh (pers. comm., 27 September 2025), beads were sent to people whom the Ọba wished to honour, although there was no directive on how to wear them.

Mostly, people who wear Iviawẹ are identified as palace chiefs or priests and priestesses. However, today anyone can wear them as cultural identifiers or fashion pieces.

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie. Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.

Abuwa ornaments are made from red ododo cloth and are a symbol of wealth (Inneh 2007, pp. 110–111). ‘Abuwa’ is understood to translate directly as “hand of wealth” (Ezra 1992, p. 313). The Abuwa is worn at the waist by high-ranking chiefs as part of their ‘pangolin skin’ ceremonial regalia (Inneh 2007, p. 110) and continues to be worn today.

Ukpọn is the Edo term for clothỌbazee 2025, p. 542and is used here to refer to the wrappers or kilts worn by many of the figures depicted on the Emwin Arre (royal treasures). The cloth worn around the waist may be plain, but it is more commonly richly decorated with motifs associated with the monarchy, power, and wealth, such as the Ọba'nui (infinity symbol) and Uhunme Ikpotoki (Portuguese heads).

The Benin Kingdom was renowned for its textile production, both for local use and for trade. Within the royal court, members of the Owina n’Ido produced ukhuen cloth for the Ọba and other members of the court, who wore it as wrappers during festivals and ceremonies.

Alongside locally produced textiles, imported cloth was also an important commodity in the Benin Kingdom’s trade networks. Textiles were exchanged with neighbouring production centres, particularly Ijebu, while European traders brought silks, woollens, linens, and cotton from Europe and Asia from the 15th century onwards.