Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria. Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days.

Ẹroro (bells) frequently appear as ornaments worn by figures depicted on the Emwin Arre, particularly on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) and Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). These Ẹroro are most commonly quadrangular in form or, less commonly, cylindrical with rounded tops. Quadrangular Ẹroro worn around the neck are often part of the attire that indicates that figures can be interpreted as warriors, alongside the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and the Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Ohian Ẹkpẹn is a significant ceremonial garment in Benin royal court art, primarily associated with warriors and military officials, underscoring their delegated authority and ferocious skill as warriors.

The leopard tunic is typically made from leather and cloth decorated to imitate leopard skin, usually with the face of a leopard emblazoned on the chest using appliqué. An Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) are often worn on top of the Ohian Ẹkpẹn. This tunic would be worn by the Ọba’s military chiefs.

In historical Benin, the Ọba held the exclusive right to distribute leopard skins to those officials to whom he delegated the power to take human life. This made the leopard tunic a potent symbol of delegated authority over life and death. Osarhieme Benson Osadolor recalled an Edo proverb: “It is the head of the leopard that accomplishes things for the leopard,” which is particularly significant for warrior chiefs, as this proverb indicates that the Ọba, known as the “Leopard of the Home,” relied on them to carry out his military campaigns.

Ọyanyan (horses), along with their riders, are significant motifs in the visual language of the Emwin Arre (royal treasures), appearing across various media and periods. Although the Benin Kingdom lies in the tropical region of West Africa affected by the tsetse fly, according to oral tradition, a small, stocky breed of horses introduced via trade routes from Nupe and Hausa was known in the kingdom from the 13th century.

In 1505, King Manuel of Portugal sent a horse, alongside other luxurious gifts such as satin and Indian silk, to one of the Ọbas, most likely Ẹsigie, as a gift. An account believed to have been written by the Dutch traveller Dierick Ruiters in 1602 described how he travelled from the port of Ughoton to Benin City on horseback. In the same account, Ruiters also described how the Ọba and his courtiers rode on horseback as part of ceremonial processions. A scene of this kind is also featured in the view of the city of Benin in Olfert Dapper’s Description of Africa.

Ọyanyan therefore embody themes relating to military power, foreign interaction, and royal authority, as well as “dignity and achievement”.

Akọn Ẹkpẹn are necklaces or neck ornaments made of strung leopard’s teeth. They are worn by figures to signify their high rank and military prowess, as well as by their leaders, the Ezọmọ or Iyasẹ. They are often worn alongside quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) and Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Akọn Ẹkpẹn is clearly and profoundly related to the symbolism of the Ẹkpẹn (leopard) and its association with the Ọba (king), who is metaphorically referred to as ‘ẹkpẹn ne owa’, the ‘leopard of the home’. On the other hand, the Ẹkpẹn is often referred to as the ‘king of the bush’, embodying ferocity, aggression, strength, and leadership—qualities attributed to the Ọba. This intricate link between the leopard, the monarch, and his military leaders reinforces the complex hierarchy and spiritual authority central to Benin’s courtly art.

The frequency with which Ọkhọn Okuo (Benin warriors) are depicted in Emwin Arre (royal treasures) reflects the importance of the army and military to the Kingdom, as well as the role of royal art as an archive in which artists from the palace guilds recorded important people, events, and institutions. The army was organised into a number of regiments, with soldiers grouped according to the weapons they used, including archers, swordsmen, crossbowmen, and spearmen.

Warrior figures are frequently shown carrying weapons such as Asa (shields), Asoro (spears), warfare swords such as the Umozo or Ọhọ (executioners’ or warfare swords), Uhanbọ (bows), Ẹkpẹde (crossbows), and Ifẹnmwẹ (arrows), which were sometimes poisoned, as well as Osisi (firearms). Their dress also provides important indications of their military role. On both the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) and Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), warriors are depicted in a relatively standardised form, typically wearing an Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunic), Akọn Ẹkpen (leopard’s tooth neck ornament), an Ẹroro pendant around the neck, and the Uko ugbo-ohamwen (fortified chest band).

Differences are particularly apparent in the warriors’ headwear, both between individual figures and between representations on Aken'ni Elao and Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn. On the Ama - Eronmwon, the most common forms of headwear are crocodile-hide helmets and horsetail helmets with a front plate. On the Aken'ni Elao, some warriors wear double-horned helmets, while others wear simple rounded hats or helmets. The most frequently represented warrior type on the tusks, however, wears a helmet with cowries sewn onto a front panel.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ. Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests.

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting. Ọbazee 2025, p. 37 According to Osadolor, there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

Itakpa facial markings consist of three linear cicatrizations at both corners of the mouth of figures, sometimes described as “cat’s whiskers” by scholars researching Benin art history.e.g., Willett 1967, pp. 67–70 Edo people do not, and did not historically, wear this type of facial marking. Therefore, it has been suggested that these figures could be messengers or envoys sent to the Kingdom of Benin by the Ooni of Ife, as similar facial markings have been seen on terracotta sculptures from Ife.Willett 1967 However, during Joseph Nevadomsky’s research in Benin City, people identified these markings as Itakpa, a kind of facial marking worn by people from areas to the north of the Benin Kingdom, where the Niger and Benue rivers meet, such as the Nupe, Igala, or some Yoruba communities. Furthermore, in his 1937 Edo-English dictionary, Melzian identified Itakpa as the Edo word for the Nupe. During the 16th century, Ọbas led expansion wars, such as the Idah War in 1515–16 under the rule of Ọba Esigie; therefore, the attribution of figures with these markings as ‘foreigners’ corresponds with the history of the Kingdom.